1887

Abstract

Phytoplasmas are a diverse but phylogenetically coherent group of cell-wall-less bacteria affiliated with the class . Due to difficulties in establishing axenic culture, phytoplasmas were assigned to a provisional genus, ‘ Phytoplasma’, and the genus was embraced within the order . However, phytoplasmas differ significantly from species of the genus in their habitat specificities, modes of life, metabolic capabilities, genomic architectures, and phylogenetic positions. This communication describes the unique ecological, nutritional, biochemical, genomic and phylogenetic properties that distinguish phytoplasmas from species of the genus and all other taxa in the class . Since such distinguishing properties of the phytoplasmas are not referable to the descriptions of the order and of all other existing orders, namely , and , this communication raises the question of whether ‘’ should be retained in the order or whether a novel provisional order and family should be created to accommodate the genus ‘’.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijs.0.000050
2015-03-01
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/ijsem/65/3/1075.html?itemId=/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijs.0.000050&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Andersen M. T., Liefting L. W., Havukkala I., Beever R. E. ( 2013 ). Comparison of the complete genome sequence of two closely related isolates of ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma australiense’ reveals genome plasticity. . BMC Genomics 14, 529. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Bai X., Zhang J., Ewing A., Miller S. A., Jancso Radek A., Shevchenko D. V., Tsukerman K., Walunas T., Lapidus A. et al. ( 2006 ). Living with genome instability: the adaptation of phytoplasmas to diverse environments of their insect and plant hosts. . J Bacteriol 188, 36823696. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Belenky P., Bogan K. L., Brenner C. ( 2007 ). NAD+ metabolism in health and disease. . Trends Biochem Sci 32, 1219. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Bi J., Wang H., Xie J. ( 2011 ). Comparative genomics of NAD(P) biosynthesis and novel antibiotic drug targets. . J Cell Physiol 226, 331340. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Buchanan B. B., Holmgren A., Jacquot J. P., Scheibe R. ( 2012 ). Fifty years in the thioredoxin field and a bountiful harvest. . Biochim Biophys Acta 1820, 18221829. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Davis R. E., Worley J. F., Whitcomb R. F., Ishijima T., Steere R. L. ( 1972 ). Helical filaments produced by a Mycoplasma-like organism associated with corn stunt disease. . Science 176, 521523. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Davis R. E., Dally E. L., Gundersen D. E., Lee I.-M., Habili N. ( 1997 ). “Candidatus phytoplasma australiense,” a new phytoplasma taxon associated with Australian grapevine yellows. . Int J Syst Bacteriol 47, 262269. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Edward D. G., Freundt E. A. ( 1967 ). Proposal for Mollicutes as name of the class established for the order Mycoplasmatales . . Int J Syst Bacteriol 17, 267268. [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Edward D. G., Freundt E. A. ( 1970 ). Amended nomenclature for strains related to Mycoplasma laidlawii . . J Gen Microbiol 62, 12. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Firrao G. IRPCM Phytoplasma/Spiroplasma Working Team–Phytoplasma Taxonomy Group ( 2004 ). Candidatus Phytoplasma’, a taxon for the wall-less, non-helical prokaryotes that colonize plant phloem and insects. . Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 54, 12431255. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Freundt E. A. ( 1955 ). The classification of the pleuropneumonia group of organisms (Borrelomycetales). . Int Bull Bacteriol Nomencl Taxon 5, 6778.
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Freundt E. A., Whitcomb R. F., Barile M. F., Razin S., Tully J. G. ( 1984 ). Proposal for elevation of the family Acholeplasmataceae to ordinal rank: Acholeplasmatales . . Int J Syst Bacteriol 34, 346349. [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Gasparich G. E. ( 2010 ). Spiroplasmas and phytoplasmas: microbes associated with plant hosts. . Biologicals 38, 193203. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Glass J. I., Assad-Garcia N., Alperovich N., Yooseph S., Lewis M. R., Maruf M., Hutchison C. A. III, Smith H. O., Venter J. C. ( 2006 ). Essential genes of a minimal bacterium. . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103, 425430. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Gundersen D. E., Lee I.-M., Rehner S. A., Davis R. E., Kingsbury D. T. ( 1994 ). Phylogeny of mycoplasmalike organisms (phytoplasmas): a basis for their classification. . J Bacteriol 176, 52445254.[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Hanschmann E. M., Godoy J. R., Berndt C., Hudemann C., Lillig C. H. ( 2013 ). Thioredoxins, glutaredoxins, and peroxiredoxins–molecular mechanisms and health significance: from cofactors to antioxidants to redox signaling. . Antioxid Redox Signal 19, 15391605. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Harrison N. A., Davis R. E., Oropeza C., Helmick E. E., Narváez M., Eden-Green S., Dollet M., Dickinson M. ( 2014 ). Candidatus Phytoplasma palmicola’, associated with a lethal yellowing-type disease of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) in Mozambique. . Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 64, 18901899. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Jomantiene R., Davis R. E. ( 2006 ). Clusters of diverse genes existing as multiple, sequence-variable mosaics in a phytoplasma genome. . FEMS Microbiol Lett 255, 5965. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Jomantiene R., Zhao Y., Davis R. E. ( 2007 ). Sequence-variable mosaics: composites of recurrent transposition characterizing the genomes of phylogenetically diverse phytoplasmas. . DNA Cell Biol 26, 557564. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Kawai S., Murata K. ( 2008 ). Structure and function of NAD kinase and NADP phosphatase: key enzymes that regulate the intracellular balance of NAD(H) and NADP(H). . Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 72, 919930. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Krieg N. R., Ludwig W., Whitman W. B., Hedlund B. P., Paster B. J., Staley, J. T., Ward N. L., Brown D. R., Parte A. (editors) ( 2010 ). Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, , 2nd edn., vol. 4. New York:: Springer.;
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Kube M., Schneider B., Kuhl H., Dandekar T., Heitmann K., Migdoll A. M., Reinhardt R., Seemüller E. ( 2008 ). The linear chromosome of the plant-pathogenic mycoplasma ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma mali’. . BMC Genomics 9, 306. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Kube M., Mitrovic J., Duduk B., Rabus R., Seemüller E. ( 2012 ). Current view on phytoplasma genomes and encoded metabolism. . ScientificWorldJournal 2012 [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Kube M., Siewert C., Migdoll A. M., Duduk B., Holz S., Rabus R., Seemüller E., Mitrovic J., Müller I. et al. ( 2014 ). Analysis of the complete genomes of Acholeplasma brassicae, A. palmae and A. laidlawii and their comparison to the obligate parasites from ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma’. . J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 24, 1936. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Lazarev V. N., Levitskii S. A., Basovskii Y. I., Chukin M. M., Akopian T. A., Vereshchagin V. V., Kostrjukova E. S., Kovaleva G. Y., Kazanov M. D. et al. ( 2011 ). Complete genome and proteome of Acholeplasma laidlawii . . J Bacteriol 193, 49434953. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Lee I.-M., Davis R. E., Gundersen-Rindal D. E. ( 2000 ). Phytoplasma: phytopathogenic mollicutes. . Annu Rev Microbiol 54, 221255. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Lee I.-M., Zhao Y., Bottner K. D. ( 2005 ). Novel insertion sequence-like elements in phytoplasma strains of the aster yellows group are putative new members of the IS3 family. . FEMS Microbiol Lett 242, 353360. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Ludwig W., Klenk H.-P. ( 2010 ). Overview: a phylogenetic backbone and taxonomic framework for procaryotic systematics. . In Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, , 2nd edn., vol 4, pp 4965. Edited by Krieg N. R., Ludwig W., Whitman W. B., Hedlund B. P., Paster B. J., Staley J. T., Ward N. L., Brown D. R., Parte A. . New York:: Springer;.
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Magni G., Di Stefano M., Orsomando G., Raffaelli N., Ruggieri S. ( 2009 ). NAD(P) biosynthesis enzymes as potential targets for selective drug design. . Curr Med Chem 16, 13721390. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Martini M., Marcone C., Lee I.-M., Firrao G. ( 2014 , in press ). Family Acholepasmataceae (including phytoplasmas). . In The Prokaryotes–Firmicutes and Tenericutes. Edited by DeLong E. F., Rosenberg E., Lory S. Berlin:: Springer;. [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Murray R. G., Schleifer K. H. ( 1994 ). Taxonomic notes: a proposal for recording the properties of putative taxa of procaryotes. . Int J Syst Bacteriol 44, 174176. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Murray R. G., Stackebrandt E. ( 1995 ). Taxonomic note: implementation of the provisional status Candidatus for incompletely described procaryotes. . Int J Syst Bacteriol 45, 186187. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Nelson D. L., Cox M. M. ( 2008 ). Glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the pentose phosphate pathway. . In Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, , 5th edn., pp. 527568. Edited by Ahr K. W. H. . New York:: Freeman;.
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Olland A. M., Underwood K. W., Czerwinski R. M., Lo M. C., Aulabaugh A., Bard J., Stahl M. L., Somers W. S., Sullivan F. X., Chopra R. ( 2002 ). Identification, characterization, and crystal structure of Bacillus subtilis nicotinic acid mononucleotide adenylyltransferase. . J Biol Chem 277, 36983707. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Oshima K., Kakizawa S., Nishigawa H., Jung H. Y., Wei W., Suzuki S., Arashida R., Nakata D., Miyata S. et al. ( 2004 ). Reductive evolution suggested from the complete genome sequence of a plant-pathogenic phytoplasma. . Nat Genet 36, 2729. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Pollak N., Dölle C., Ziegler M. ( 2007 ). The power to reduce: pyridine nucleotides-small molecules with a multitude of functions. . Biochem J 402, 205218. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Razin S. ( 1992 ). Mycoplasma taxonomy and ecology. . In Mycoplasmas: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis, pp. 322. Edited by Maniloff J., McElhaney R. N., Finch L. R., Baseman J. B. . Washington, DC:: American Society for Microbiology;.
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Robinson I. M., Freundt E. A. ( 1987 ). Proposal for an amended classification of anaerobic mollicutes. . Int J Syst Bacteriol 37, 7881. [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Schafer F. Q., Buettner G. R. ( 2001 ). Redox environment of the cell as viewed through the redox state of the glutathione disulfide/glutathione couple. . Free Radic Biol Med 30, 11911212. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Skripal I. G. ( 1983 ). Revival of the name Spiroplasmataceae fam. nov., nom. rev., omitted from the 1980 approved lists of bacterial names. . Int J Syst Bacteriol 33, 408. [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Stackebrandt E. ( 2009 ). Phylogeny Based on 16S rRNA/DNA. Encyclopedia of Life Sciences (ELS). Chichester:: Wiley;.
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Tamura K., Stecher G., Peterson D., Filipski A., Kumar S. ( 2013 ). mega6: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 6.0. . Mol Biol Evol 30, 27252729. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Tran-Nguyen L. T., Kube M., Schneider B., Reinhardt R., Gibb K. S. ( 2008 ). Comparative genome analysis of “Candidatus Phytoplasma australiense” (subgroup tuf-Australia I; rp-A) and “Ca. Phytoplasma asteris” Strains OY-M and AY-WB. . J Bacteriol 190, 39793991. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Tully J. G., Bové J. M., Laigret F., Whitcomb R. F. ( 1993 ). Revised taxonomy of the class Mollicutes: proposed elevation of a monophyletic cluster of arthropod-associated mollicutes to ordinal rank (Entomoplasmatales ord. nov.), with provision for familial rank to separate species with nonhelical morphology (Entomoplasmataceae fam. nov.) from helical species (Spiroplasmataceae), and emended descriptions of the order Mycoplasmatales, family Mycoplasmataceae . . Int J Syst Bacteriol 43, 378385. [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Wei W., Davis R. E., Lee I.-M., Zhao Y. ( 2007 ). Computer-simulated RFLP analysis of 16S rRNA genes: identification of ten new phytoplasma groups. . Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 57, 18551867. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Wei W., Davis R. E., Jomantiene R., Zhao Y. ( 2008 ). Ancient, recurrent phage attacks and recombination shaped dynamic sequence-variable mosaics at the root of phytoplasma genome evolution. . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105, 1182711832. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Weintraub P. G., Beanland L. ( 2006 ). Insect vectors of phytoplasmas. . Annu Rev Entomol 51, 91111. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Zhao Y., Davis R. E., Lee I.-M. ( 2005 ). Phylogenetic positions of ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris’ and Spiroplasma kunkelii as inferred from multiple sets of concatenated core housekeeping proteins. . Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 55, 21312141. [View Article] [PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Zhao Y., Wei W., Davis R. E., Lee I.-M. ( 2010 ). Recent advances in 16S rRNA gene-based phytoplasma differentiation, classification and taxonomy. . In Phytoplasmas: Genomes, Plant Hosts and Vector, pp. 6492. Edited by Weintraub P., Jones P. . Wallingford:: CABI Publishing;.
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Zhao Y., Davis R. E., Wei W., Shao J., Jomantiene R. ( 2014 ). Phytoplasma genomes: evolution through mutually complementary mechanisms, gene loss and horizontal acquisition. . In: Genomics of Plant-Associated Bacteria , pp 234271. Edited by Gross D., Lichens-Park A., Kole C. . Heidelberg:: Springer;. [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijs.0.000050
Loading
/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijs.0.000050
Loading

Data & Media loading...

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error